Leadership Styles based on the Situational Leadership Theory - A teach yourself Module

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1. Leadership

2. Leadership styles

3. Development levels

4. Matching leadership style to development level

5. Increasing development level

6. Blocking regression

7. Primary and secondary styles

8. Matching treatment of groups and individuals

9. Summary

10. Self-test questions

11. Task assignment

12. Bibliography

1. Leadership:

1.1 General:
Leadership is the behavioural style or pattern you use when trying to influence the behaviour of other people. It is an influence process. Your perception of your own behaviour and its impact on others is an indication to yourself of your intentional actions. The people you are trying to influence, will however, react to your behavioural actions according to their own perceptions of your behavioural style. You have to get your own perception in line with how others see and experience you, if you want to influence them effectively.

1.2 Purpose of this module:
The purpose of this module is to supply you with knowledge so that you can:
- adopt the appropriate leadership style for a particular situation.

2. Leadership styles:

Dominant response traits in conflict situations can vary between domineering, collaborating, compromising, accommodating and avoiding, depending on the degree of cooperativeness and the degree of assertiveness. The following diagram illustrates dominant response traits:

In terms of leadership styles, the degree of assertiveness is replaced with autocratic style and degree of cooperativeness is replaced with democratic style. The above diagram can then be converted as follows:

While autocratic leaders use position, power and formal authority to get results, democratic leaders use their personal power (obtained from how others view them). Democratic leaders encourage participation of others in problem-solving and decision-making.

A further development is the introduction of the four leadership styles, ranging from S1, S2, S3 through to S4, which can be illustrated as follows:

Directive behaviour is the degree of one way communication with subordinates by telling them what, where, when and how to do things and closely supervising their progress.

Supportive behaviour is the degree of two way communication with subordinates by listening, supporting, encouraging and involving them in decision-making.

With directive behaviour more time and energy are spent on detailed instructions and supervision.

The leadership styles, as perceived by subordinates by the way that a leader treats them during problem-solving and decision-making sessions, can be described as follows:

2.1 Style 1 (S1) - DIRECTING:

With this approach the leader has a high tendency of taking decisions himself, instructing others how to execute the decisions and closely supervising their progress.

2.2 Style 2 (S2) - COACHING:

The leader is still directing with his ideas but also encourages suggestions. Two-way communication increases, but the leader controls decision-making.

2.3 Style 3 (S3) - SUPPORTING:

The control of problem-solving and decision-making shifts to the subordinate. They now make decisions together and the leader is mentoring the subordinate's judgement. A higher tendency emerges of the leader sharing his control by allowing and encouraging subordinate participation in decision-making.

2.4 Style 4 (S4) - DELEGATING:

The problem is discussed with the subordinate to get mutual agreement on problem definition. The control over problem-solving and decision-making is totally turned over to the subordinate, so that he can "run his own show".

3. Development Levels:

The development level of an individual or a group is their degree of competence and commitment to perform a specific task without supervision.
You can obtain competence by improved skills and knowledge through training, education and experience. Commitment on the other hand, is a product of self-confidence and motivation. Self-confidence stems from beliefs about oneself, while motivation stems from personal interest and enthusiasm for a task.

There are four development stages, each representing a different combination of competence and commitment, ranging from D1, D2, D3 and through to D4:

	Peak Performer	Reluctant Contributor	Disillusioned Learner	Enthusiastic Beginner
Competence Level	High competence	High competence	Some competence	Low competence
Commitment Level	High commitment	Variable commitment	Low commitment	High commitment
Development Level	D4 (High)	D3 (Moderate to high)	D2 (Low to moderate)	D1 (Low)

3.1 Development level 1 (D1):

When faced with a new task, an individual with no or little knowledge and experience, will be eager and enthusiastic to learn.

3.2 Development level 2 (D2) :

At this stage the individual has made several attempts at task accomplishment and often finds it to be more difficult or less interesting than anticipated. He/she becomes disillusioned and commitment drops.

3.3 Development level 3 (D3) :

The individual learns to accomplish the task with the help and support of his boss and is doubtful whether he/she can perform the task without help from the boss. The boss tells them they are competent, but they are still doubtful and commitment fluctuates from excitement to insecurity.

3.4 Development level 4 (D4) :

With help and support, the individual can eventually become a high performer. The individual has proven to himself that he is competent on his own and self-confidence and satisfaction is high. Competence and commitment are both at a high level.

4. Matching leadership style to development level:

We have so far seen that competence steadily increases as the individual progresses through the development levels from D1 to D4. This can also be associated with the normal learning curve of people.

Commitment, however, does not follow the same smooth steady increase and can vary in degree at the different levels.

Furthermore, an individual can be at a high level of development in one task, but at a lower level of development with another task.

Thus, a drop in commitment calls for high supportive behaviour. Treat the same individual with respect to different tasks, according to his development level in a specific task.

The leader must provide behaviour or treatment that the individual needs at the different levels, which can be illustrated with the following diagram:

At development level D1, with high commitment and low competence, the Directing style S1 is appropriate. It tells people what roles to play, what, how, when and where to do tasks. Support is not appropriate.

At D2, people lack competence and commitment. The lack in competence still calls for directive behaviour and lower commitment calls for supportive behaviour that increases two-way communication to build confidence and motivation. This is the Coaching style S2.

At D3, with variable commitment and motivation, more participation by the individual in decision-making is appropriate; also listening, supporting and encouraging to use learned skills. This is the Supporting style S3.

At D4, both competence and commitment are high and the individual needs little direction and support. He is now a peak performer and psychologically mature. This is the Delegating style S4.

5. INCREASING DEVELOPMENT LEVEL:

It requires time and energy by the leader to train and develop an individual. However, if you do not do it, performance will remain low and frustration mutually high. The quicker you get a person from D1 to D4, the sooner performance will be high so that you can spend your time and energy elsewhere. Simultaneously you will have created productive and satisfied employees.

5.1 Directive behaviour to train people to become high performers, can be summarised in 4 steps:

5.1.1 Tell, describe and explain to them clearly what you want them to do.

5.1.2 Show them how to do it so that they understand the standard.

5.1.3 Let them try - that is, let them learn by trial and error.

5.1.4 Observe performance by close supervision to provide help in correcting errors when needed.

5.2 Supportive behaviour to reinforce motivation:

5.2.1 If you can catch people doing something right and provide praise or promotion, this will reinforce motivation and self-image, which in turn increases the probability of the successful occurrence repeating itself.

5.2.2 Allow people to progress in small steps. Success is easier with a step at a time and reinforces motivation. Give praise for progress that is approximately right as well.

5.2.3 The idea is to provide support through the development stages so that direction as imposed externally by the leader in the earlier stages, shifts over so that it becomes internally imposed and generated by the individual himself.

5.2.4 If you continue longer than necessary to direct and closely supervise people, you are sending them a message that you do not trust them, which in turn affects performance. If, however, you involve them in problem-solving and decision-making, they will get feelings of confidence and motivation. The sooner you begin to delegate to them, the sooner they will get the message that you regard them as capable, trustworthy, responsible and reliable persons. This will reinforce higher performance.

6. BLOCKING REGRESSION:

Improvements in performance call for forward shifts in styles. In the same way, deterioration or regression in performance also calls for backward shifts in style. That is to say, if a person regresses from D4 to D3, the treatment style must also shift backwards from S4 to S3, to support the person back to D4.

Promotion often throws a person back to a lower development level if he has not had sufficient experience and exposure in the new position. Likewise, he/she must get appropriate treatment for guidance to the higher levels of development.

7. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STYLES:

Most people have a primary style (the strongest style) and a secondary style (the one they use if the primary style is ineffective).

Common primary-secondary patterns are :

PATTERN IMPACT OF STYLES

S1-S4 - Known as the hot-cold style, this pattern creates confusion and resentment. Also called the seagull style. Managers portray the image of people who criticize when things are wrong and then leave you alone until the next mistake. Definitely a non- developmental style.

S1-S2 - This manager is effective with low developed subordinates, but more developed people resent him. Effective in crises and under pressure. Usually unable to delegate and ineffective at planning/ strategic levels of management.

S2-S3 - Seen as a 'people' person; D1 level subordinates often frustrate him. Needs relationships and consequently has difficulty working alone or at speed. Not good with discipline or delegation.

S3-S4 - Not good with structure or time management. Not an obvious 'leader' in that the social profile is low. Effective with developed subordinates.

S2-S4 - Has difficulty in developing subordinates because the shift from S2 to S4 is too abrupt and subordinates perceive him as having lack of interest.

S3-S1 - Used by inexperienced managers who think that participative management might be a good thing to do. Results in subordinates who become 'yes' men.

8. MATCHING TREATMENT OF GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS:

If we look at the theoretic model of facilitation of groups or team building, we see that treatment of groups and individuals can diagrammatically be matched as follows:

Since groups also have four development levels or stages, namely forming, storming, norming and performing, we can also apply four matching leadership styles to the four development levels of groups. It can be illustrated as follows:

Performing	Norming	Storming	Forming
Define problems and encourage trust and openness	Be supportive. Set rules and encourage participation	Be potent and supportive. Set rules and test feelings.	Be potent. Specify objectives and make them comfortable.

9. SUMMARY:

9.1 APPROPRIATENESS OF STYLES:

The four styles vary in terms of the amount of direction, support and subordinate involvement.

Style

Appropriate

Inappropriate

Where there is a match (D1), with someone who is low in competence but motivated.

In an emergency.

When there is a short timeline with a D2 or D3.

With a D2 on a complicated, new, and very important task.

Sometimes, where there is a major organizational change.

When there is a lack of experience in relation to a specific task, such as with a new employee.

With a D2, D3, D4 and there's a mismatch.

When you have underutilized a person's skills; when you have taken on their "monkey".

When it is overused and you come across as a dictator.

When used as a reprimand, inappropriately, with a D1 or D2.

When there is no checking for understanding.

With a D2, a person who has some competence, but not all the skills, knowledge, or information needed, who is also unmotivated or disillusioned.

With a D1 or D1/D2 who is developing; with a person who has performed well under your close supervision.

When a subordinate has some skills and experience to contribute, but may not have all the information or perspective the manager has.

To build a subordinate's commitment to doing a task if he/she has some skills or knowledge needed.

With a D1, D3 or D4 and there's a mismatch.

With a D1- there's too much encouraging and consultation.

With a D3 - there's too much direction.

With a D4 - there's too much direction and support.

When the use of S2 comes across as the "helpful but interfering back-seat driver".

With a subordinate who has most of the skills relevant to doing a task, but is a little insecure; with someone who lacks confidence.

With a subordinate who has the skills needed to do the task, but does not care.

With a subordinate who has good skills and ideas, but is new to the task or is hesitant, because he or she has never done the task alone before.

With a D4 who is slipping to D3 for whatever reason - a productivity problem or a personal problem.

With someone who likes and may need recognition and support.

If there is a mismatch - when an individual or group needs more direction (S1 or S2) or less support (S4).

If it is rescuing - the manager cannot stay uninvolved even though the person has the skills to do the task.

If it is too paternalistic, supportive or friendly.

When the praise that is given, is global, not specific.

When you do something for someone that they can do for themselves ("you love them into incompetency or dependence").

With D4's - motivated, confident, educated, experienced, self-directing, self-supporting persons.

With a group which has all the technical and teaming skills needed to do a task.

With D3's who have all the skills for the task at hand when there are long timelines, low stakes, and built-in reinforcement.

With unmotivated, insecure, or apathetic subordinates.

With people who do not have all the skills to do the task, because the manager is setting them up to fail and setting himself/herself up to use the 1-4-1 leave-alone-zap leadership style.

When performance and/or motivation changes.

When introducing a new person to a group.

If the manager loses touch with what is going on; does not monitor performance.

When there is a change in the organization.

9.2 STEPS IN CONTRACTING FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE:

9.2.1 Identify the subordinate goals and performance standards.

9.2.2 Identify the subordinate's development level.

9.2.3 Identify the manager's past leadership style.

9.2.4 Decide on an appropriate leadership style for the future.

9.2.5 Specify what the leader will do to carry out the agreed-upon leadership style, i.e. appropriate behavioural elements.

9.2.6 Clarify and agree with the subordinate what he/she must do and achieve.

9.2.7 Review with the subordinate the degree of success in applying the appropriate leadership style 4-8 weekly.

9.2.8 Review the subordinate's development level 12-16 weekly.

9.2.9 Re-contract style as appropriate.

10. SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:

1. How will you define leadership? [2]

2. Explain the difference between autocratic and democratic leaders. [2]

3. Draw diagrammatically the grid that illustrates the four different leadership styles. [20]

4. Briefly describe the approach of each of the four leadership styles as perceived by subordinates. [8]

5. Explain the difference between directive and supportive behaviour. [4]

6. How will you define development level of the individual? [2]

7. Competence can be obtained by improved skills and knowledge through three activities. Name the three. [3]

8. Commitment is a product of two factors. Name the two. [2]

9. On what is self-confidence based? [1]

10. On what is motivation based? [2]

11. There are four development stages of the individual, each representing a different combination of competence and commitment. Draw it diagrammatically with the help of column headings. [20]

12. Briefly describe your understanding of each of the four development levels. [8]

13. Briefly describe how the four leadership styles can be matched to the four development levels in terms of competence and commitment. [8]

14. Directive behaviour to train people to become high performers, can be summarised in four steps. Describe the four steps. [4]

15. Supportive behaviour to reinforce motivation, can be summarised in four steps. Describe the four steps. [8]

16. Make use of a four column diagram to illustrate how treatment of individuals and groups can be matched according to development levels of individuals and groups. [16]

17. There are nine steps for a leader to follow when he is contracting with a subordinate for improved performance. Describe six. [6]

Total [114]

11. TASK ASSIGNMENT:

11.1 IMPROVING YOUR EFFECTIVENESS:

Using the leadership model effectively requires that the manager be able to assess accurately the developmental level of subordinates. This section outlines the use of such an assessment.

PROCESS:

11.1.1 Distribute copies of the assessment form to each of your subordinates. Explain that you wish to examine the appropriateness of your leadership style with your subordinates.

11.1.2 Set a date for the return of the form and another date for a discussion of the results.

11.1.3 Complete your assessment of your subordinates on the same form.

11.1.4 Compare the two sets of results prior to discussion and highlight the major differences.

11.1.5 In the discussion aim to reconcile the differences. Be open to your subordinate's opinions.

11.1.6 Agree as to an appropriate leadership style to use with the subordinate.

11.1.6.1 To assess an appropriate style, follow this guide:

Score from section 1 of assessment
Mark your score from section 1 with "X"	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Task style required	S4		S3		S2		S1

Score from section 2 and 3 of assessment
Mark your score from section 2 and 3 with "X"	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Relationship style required	S4		S3		S2		S1

11.1.6.2 Regarding task style, my leadership will be more effective when I do the following things:

11.1.6.3 Regarding relationship style, my leadership will be more effective when I do the following things:

11.1.7 Review the effectiveness of your leadership behaviours monthly (or as suitable) by reassessing development level or by discussion only.

DEVELOPMENT LEVEL ASSESSMENT

PURPOSE: THIS ASSESSMENT IS DESIGNED TO ASSESS YOUR CAPABILITY WITH RESPECT TO YOUR CURRENT JOB. IT WILL HELP YOU AND YOUR MANAGER TO FOCUS ON AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT THAT WILL IMPROVE YOUR JOB PERFORMANCE.

CURRENT JOB: (STATE IN TERMS OF THE RESULTS YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE/ACCOUNTABLE FOR PRODUCING - KEY RESULT AREAS) .

Name: Date: Job:
Section 1 - development level competency assessment - circle the applicable rating
		Low High
		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
A	Knowledge
	Relevant education	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	On the job training/experience	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
B	Skills
	Appropriate technical skills (show relevant areas):
	1	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	2	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	3	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Appropriate social skills (show relevant areas):
	1	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	2	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	3	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
C	Ability
	Taking initiative	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Solving problems	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Getting results	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Systematic approach	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Understanding job requirements	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Capacity for hard work	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Other?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average A + B + C	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8

Name: Date: Job:
Section 2 and 3 - development level competency assessment - circle the applicable rating
		Low High
2	Confidence
	Record of achievement	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Quality of relationship with manager	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Quality of relationship with co-workers
	Ability to cope with frustration and disappointments
	Average	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
3	Willingness
	Strength of my belief that good results will advance my career at a satisfactory rate	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	How much effort do I feel like putting into the current job	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
	Average 2 + 3	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8

INTERPRETATION : SECTION 1 SCORES DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL ASSESSMENT:

1-2 = YOU REQUIRE CONSIDERABLE GUIDANCE, DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS AND CLOSE SUPERVISION.

3-4 = YOU STILL REQUIRE GUIDANCE BUT CAN FUNCTION FOR LONGER PERIODS WITHOUT INSTRUCTION. YOU MUST STILL BE SUPERVISED FREQUENTLY.

5-6 = YOU CAN MAKE USE OF YOUR OWN IDEAS AND EXPERIENCE TO VARYING DEGREES. YOU REQUIRE CONTACT WITH YOUR MANAGER TO CONFIRM YOUR INTENDED ACTIONS, TO ARRIVE AT JOINT DECISIONS AND TO REPORT ON PROGRESS.

7-8 = YOU ARE ABLE TO HANDLE CONSIDERABLE RESPONSIBILITY WITHOUT THE INPUT OF YOUR MANAGER. CONTACT WITH YOUR MANAGER IS TO MAINTAIN DIRECTION AND TO report ON PROGRESS.

INTERPRETATION : SECTION 2 + 3 SCORES DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL ASSESSMENT

1-2 YOU NEED DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS AT THIS STAGE I.E. HOW TO DO THE JOB.

3-4 YOU NEED EXPLANATIONS IN ORDER TO LEARN. YOUR MANAGER SHOULD BE GIVING YOU DETAILED CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK ON YOUR SPECIFIC TASKS AND BE SUPPORTIVE OF YOUR EFFORTS.

5-6 YOU NEED MORE FREEDOM THAN PREVIOUSLY TO PROVE THAT YOU CAN MAKE EFFECTIVE DECISIONS AND GET RESULTS. YOUR MANAGER SHOULD BE AVAILABLE TO GUIDE YOU WHEN YOU NEED THIS.

7-8 YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO HANDLE DELEGATED RESPONSIBILITY I.E. FUNCTION WITHOUT YOUR MANAGER'S SUPPORT OR DETAILED INPUT. BUT YOU SHOULD STILL MAINTAIN CONTACT TO ENSURE THAT YOUR VIEW OF THE REQUIRED RESULTS IS IN LINE WITH YOUR MANAGER'S REQUIREMENTS.

11.2 WRITE UP A REPORT THAT SUMMARISES THE LEARNING POINTS, COVERING THE FOLLOWING: (one paragraph each)

11.2.1 WHAT I LEARNED ABOUT LEADERSHIP:

11.2.2 WHAT I LEARNED ABOUT MY STYLES:

11.2.3 WHAT I LEARNED ABOUT MY STYLE EFFECTIVENESS WITH MY SUBORDINATES WITH REGARD TO MY TASK AND RELATIONSHIP STYLES:

11.2.4 MY STRONG POINTS ARE:

11.2.5 MY WEAK POINTS ARE:

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY:

12.1 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT THEORY
12.2 FACILITATION THEORY
12.3 Situation leadership II, as developed by K.H. Blanchard.
12.4 The One Minute Manager, K.H. Blanchard and S. Johnson, 1982, William Morrow and Company.

12.5 Lectures and lecture notes by by James Laubscher, 1992.

About the Author:
Pierre du Plessis (MBL, 1982, UNISA) is a business consultant, co-owner of Leaders Circle, author of several e-books and training manuals, previous Corporate Logistics and Procurement Manager, ex-army infantry soldier as Officer in Charge of Battalion Operations and nowadays business owner of several successful offline business operations. He is also co-founder of Career Builders Club.

Leadership Styles Videos:

Summary of snippets and resources about Leadership Styles from all over the web:

Service firms recognize the need to introduce new technologies to stay in the market, or to retain their competitive advantage compared to their rivals. Introducing new technologies in an organization is by no means easy and poses many challenges like the acceptance and adoption of new technologies by employees. The technology acceptance model (TAM) has often been applied to explain individual technology use. In previous studies, the model has been extended with many different constructs, including personal and technology related factors. Also management support and training have been shown to positively influence technology acceptance. However, the influence of leadership style in this context has not been studied before. This study models test two leadership styles (transactional and transformational) as antecedents to perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of new technologies. ¹

A good situational leader is one who can quickly change leadership styles as the situation changes. The model doesn't apply only to people in leadership or management positions; all people lead others at work, at play, and at home. ²

In the past several decades, management experts have undergone a revolution in how they define leadership and what their attitudes are toward it. They have gone from a very classical autocratic approach to a very creative, participative approach. Somewhere along the line, it was determined that not everything old was bad and not everything new was good. Rather, different styles were needed for different situations and each leader needed to know when to exhibit a particular approach. ³

Transformational Leadership (TL) and Transactional Leadership (TR) styles have been examined in diverse organizational settings, including education, politics, business, and the military. Despite the abundance of research examining the relationship between leadership styles and leader effectiveness, there is a lack of recent research investigating leadership in the domain of rehabilitation in general and occupational therapy (OT) specifically. Atkinson studied the characteristics and competencies required by leaders in various settings and concluded that many similarities exist across the leadership spectrum from rehabilitation managers to top leaders in the business world. However, a paucity of research exists that focuses on leaders in rehabilitation. ⁴

Critical organizational outcomes, such as satisfaction, organizational performance, group performance, and commitment, have been associated with these leadership styles (Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1996). These results have also been validated across cultures and in different settings (Al-Dmour & Awamleh, 2002). This included the public sector with mixed results (Javidan & Waldman, 2003). Javidan and Waldman (2003) found that in the public sector, charismatic leadership was only modestly related to motivational consequences. The impact of charismatic/transformational leadership styles on followers' effectiveness and motivation has also been documented (Bass & Avolio, 1990; 1994). In spite of this, the effects of managerial leadership styles from transformational and transactional perspectives have not been validated in banks. A key objective of this study is to fill this knowledge gap. Additionally, two possible moderating variables are considered: self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1979) and Romance of Leadership (Meindl, 1995). ⁵

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. All the different styles -uthoritarian or autocratic; participative or democratic; and delegative or free reign have the applicability. Like for instance, using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job, this style would be appropriate. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee. Now an opportunity to use a participative style would be with a team of workers who know their jobs. The leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information, the employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team. ⁶

It could be that different leadership styles are appropriate in different circumstances. Certainly, it seems that every so often in democracies people yearn for a strong leader who promptly tramples all over their democratic freedoms. Hitler and Mussolini are obvious examples, but de Gaulle in France in 1958 and Thatcher in Britain in 1979 are presumably also symptomatic of the same malaise. ⁷

Leadership styles are defined as "a pattern of emphases, indexed by the frequency or intensity of specific leadership behaviors or attitudes, which a leader places on the different leadership functions" (Casimir, 2001). The three leadership styles used in this research are autocratic, transactional, and transformational. Although categorization is restricting, it is also convenient. Instead of falling in distinct categories, leadership styles exist on a continuum. This continuum reflects the range of styles, not the frequency with which they are exhibited. Most leaders use combinations of skill types depending on the situation, context, and the styles of those within their spheres of influence. Nonetheless, each exhibits a predominant style. ⁸

Abstract: While many aspects of leadership and work satisfaction have been heavily researched, member satisfaction with the style of leaders who provide treatment in groups has rarely been researched An assumption underlying the present study is that certain leadership styles are associated with member satisfaction. This study examined the perception of leadership style and member satisfaction in treatment groups. Member satisfaction with leadership style was measured in the middle phase of treatment groups. A structured, close-ended questionnaire was developed. ⁹

With a task-oriented style, a transactional leader occupies the middle area of the continuum. Leaders with this style largely react to the performance of their employees and reward for compliance to their directives, a factor Northouse (2001) called "contingent reward" (p. Transactional leaders do not address employees' needs, motivations, or development. In general, their focus does not include intangibles, such as goodwill, because the influence of similar intangibles may be subtle, future oriented, or not easily calculated. Organizational positions are defined according to tasks to be fulfilled, and employees are evaluated on the same. Workaholic patterns are modeled and rewarded (Graham, 1995, p. 47). Transactional leaders "focus on the exchanges that occur between leaders and their followers" (Northouse, 2001, p. 132) and use "corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement" (p. ¹⁰

The transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) style occupies the opposite end of the leadership continuum from the autocratic style. Its characteristics overlap the participative and servant (Greenleaf, 1977) styles but can be distinguished by its motivating power. Within the continuum of styles, a transformational leader may swing from "charismatic" to "individualized consideration" (Northouse, 2001). The transformational leadership style overlaps with the servant leadership style in its attempts to share knowledge and power and to recognize the "have-nots as equal stakeholders in the life of the organization" (Northouse, 2001, p. 257). ¹¹

It begins with a brief review of three theories of leadership, situational, path-goal and transactional versus transformational and proceeds to describe how they can be related to the two managers. It examines their different personalities and the leadership styles that bought them notoriety. ¹²

Correspondence concerning this manuscript may be sent via electronic mail to: srose@gmu.edu. Leadership Style and Member Satisfaction in Treatment Groups As treatment groups continue to flourish little knowledge exists about members' satisfaction with them. ¹³

The Conscientious Manager is nearly a polar opposite to the Driver but can be equally effective. Because Conscientious Managers are typically more concerned with team victory than individual recognition, they can pull together the concentrated efforts of a variety of individuals to achieve a corporate goal. The hallmarks of this leadership style are dauntless pursuit of detail and completion and an extraordinary sense of responsibility. ¹⁴

This paper presents a case study which discusses leadership and management styles within The Consolidated Life Company. It discusses the company's view on different leadership styles and looks at the clashes in management style that occurred due to varying perspectives and implementation of management. The paper ends with four short questions and answers on the issues that are relevant to the case discussed. ¹⁵

The style you choose will also depend on the skill level of your team. For a highly skilled and motivated team, you may use a combination of high delegative and moderate participative styles. But if the team has low competence, you may need to use a combination of high coaching, high supporting and high directing leadership styles. ¹⁶

To a significant degree, large American firms are at a later stage of development than many Asian firms—they have passed from founders' family leadership to professional management and to capital obtained from the capital markets (rather than obtained from government—directly or indirectly—or from family fortunes). In this transition they have adopted particular styles of leadership responsive to boards (often led by outside directors) and to Wall Street. ¹⁷

In recent years researchers have contributed different causes as responsible for the success of a country's economic system and as a result, differing models for economic growth suggest multiple possible paths for success. This paper examines how two countries of notable global success, attributable to each of its entrepreneurial leadership skills, are Sweden and China. It offers a comparative study of the entrepreneurial leadership of both Sweden and China, taking into consideration such factors as their political and economic history, leadership styles and regulatory changes. It concludes with an analysis of the factors that both entrepreneur leadership styles have in common. ¹⁸

This study aims at addressing key questions by examining transformational and transactional leadership styles in a banking setting. Given the important role of banking in economies such as the UAE, it is important to assess if the normal effects of transformational and transactional leadership styles hold. Other questions include: to what extent are these leadership styles present at the functional level in UAE banks? And finally, are there any effects for the individual differences of self-esteem and leadership disposition on bank employees' performance and satisfaction? ¹⁹

To best meet the needs of the groups they work with, leaders continually shift their leadership styles. Explaining the constant changing of leadership styles and techniques is one of the difficulties in teaching leadership. ²⁰

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