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1. Purpose of this module
2. Definition of conflict
3. Underlying reasons
4. Constructive conflict
5. The five basic methods
6. Advantages and disadvantages
7. Typical personal response modes
8. Analysis of the conflict situation
9. Tactics used in the two main strategies
10. How to negotiate
11. Self-test questions
12. Task assignment
13. Bibliography
The purpose of this module is to supply you with knowledge so
that you can:
- analyse conflict situations; and
- select appropriate strategies to deal with them.
Conflict exists when there is a difference op opinion between two or more parties, which has the potential to affect tasks and relationships either negatively or positively, depending on the communication mode used to resolve the conflict.
The underlying reasons why people have different viewpoints or
opinions are because of differences in one or more of the following:
perceptions
needs
values
flexibility (willingness to integrate differences)
The last reason is normally responsible for most conflict situations.
Conflict is a natural part of everyday life. It can occur in the family, social group or work team. You cannot eliminate it or wish it away! The answer is therefore to view it as essentially healthy and to handle and resolve it constructively. In other words view it as an opportunity to learn something from, or that can result in creative new ideas. Explore differences and consider alternatives for better results.
The five basic methods for resolving conflict are the following:
A person avoids the issue by sidestepping it, pretending it does
not exist, postponing it until later, or withdrawing from a threatening
situation.
It is useful when the issue is not critical, when the stakes are low and when
timing is not critical. It may give time to clarify the situation, to let people
cool down, or let others resolve the conflict more effectively.
Often, however, the conflict escalates and makes management more difficult
because it is still there.
A person using accommodating, plays down differences to satisfy
the concerns of the other person.
It may be useful when the issue is much more important to the other person than
to yourself - as a goodwill gesture to help maintain a cooperative relationship.
Also when you realize you are wrong; or when continued competition would only
damage your cause, for instance when you are outmatched and losing. It is useful
when it is more important to preserve a relationship than to deal with an
insignificant issue through conflict.
The source of the conflict rarely goes away.
This method is often used to settle differences. The power or
dominance referred to in this strategy is coercive power or position power
(authority).
Power tactics, however, result in winners and losers, and losers do not support
a final decision in the same way that winners do. Future meetings of a group are
often sabotaged by the conscious or unconscious renewal of the struggle
previously supposedly resolved by power.
This strategy may be useful when quick, decisive action is vital and you know
you are right. It is sometimes necessary when you need to protect yourself
against people who take advantage of non-competitive behaviour.
Because of the poor outcome relationship inherent in this strategy, it should be
carefully considered, as a win/lose situation may deteriorate into a lose/lose
situation.
Compromise (meeting each other halfway) has some serious
drawbacks.
Bargaining often causes both sides to assume an inflated position. They are
aware that they are going to have to give a little and want to buffer the loss.
The compromise solution may be watered down or weakened to the point where it
will not be effective. There is often little real commitment by any of the
parties, and eventually a new deal will be sought.
However there are situations when compromise is useful. Such as when resources
are limited or when two opponents with equal power are strongly committed to
mutually exclusive goals. (as in labour versus management bargaining.) It is
also useful to achieve temporary settlements to complex issues or as a backup
mode when collaboration or dominance fails to be successful. It is dependent on
both parties honouring the agreements.
This strategy is time-consuming but has the advantage that the
outcome relationship is improved by the development of trust between the
parties. It requires that all parties recognise the abilities and expertise of
the others. It requires a high level of creativity and innovation.
The position of each party is well understood by the other parties. The emphasis
of the group is on trying to solve the problem here, rather than on defending
particular positions or views as the work progresses. Ultimately, the best of
the group's thinking will emerge. It represents a shift away from a win/lose
settlement, towards an assumption that the needs of both parties can be
fulfilled.
|
Method |
Advantage |
Disadvantage |
| Avoiding | Maintain good relations | Problem remains (win/lose) |
| Accommodating | Maintain good relations | Problem remains. Negative attitudes (win/lose) |
| Domineering | Speed | Relations and attitudes deteriorate. Loss of respect. |
| Compromising | Allows a person to prove trustworthiness. Quick to resolve conflict. | Possible inflated start-off requirements. (win/lose) |
| Collaborating (Negotiating) | The process itself is based on mutual trust, respect and participation. Mutually rewarding. | Time-consuming. (win/win) |
Each person has a typical or dominant response style or behaviour (natural style) in conflict situations. It can be illustrated as follows:
The degree of assertiveness refers to the extent to which the
individual attempts to satisfy his own concerns.
The degree of cooperativeness refers to the extent to which the individual
attempts to satisfy the other person's concerns.
The combined effect of assertiveness and cooperativeness will place the natural
style at some point within the square block.
To be able to handle conflict successfully, one must intentionally guard against
one's natural style to resolve it! Rather use your knowledge of conflict
management and apply the best method for the particular situation!
Your chosen strategies for conflict resolution must be based on your analysis of the situation:
8.1.1 Who are you in conflict with?
8.1.2 What is the real issue?
8.1.3 What possible hidden agendas may exist?
8.1.4 What are the differences in wants, needs, values and willingness to
integrate?
8.1.5 What are the differences in anticipated losses and gains?
8.2.1 STAKES: What is at stake? How important is it and how much
energy will you be willing to spend?
8.2.2 FLEXIBILITY: How flexible will you be on this issue? Are you prepared to
give and take and be influenced by the other party?
8.2.3 OUTCOME RELATIONSHIP: How important is future co-operation from the other
party? How dependant will you be on him in future?
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the five basic methods in relation to the factors classified above to select the most appropriate method. It may involve selection of a main strategy and a back-up strategy.
For instance, if you use the domineering method and your power base is pulled from under you, you have nothing to fall back on! Rather use it as a back-up strategy and not the primary strategy!
|
Stakes |
Flexibility |
Appropriate Strategy |
| Low | Low | Avoiding |
| Low | High | Accommodating |
| Moderate | High | Compromising |
| High | Low | Domineering |
| High | High | Collaborating |
8.3.1 What is the most likely strategy that the other party will
use?
8.3.2 What will be the most appropriate method for you?
8.3.3 What method will be most successful in dealing with the other party and
his likely approach?
8.4.1 Case One:
Pete is one of your subordinates who has worked for you for two years. Generally
he has been better than average but over the past three weeks his performance
has been below average. You know that he wants to work in another section. To
straighten him out, you would:
a. Tell him that if he wants to keep his job, he'd better improve fast. (Power)
b. Tell him that if he improves, you'll try to get him transferred. (Compromise)
c. Tell him that you have a problem with his recent performance, remind him of
the standards and ask him to discuss improvement actions with you. (Integration)
d. Say nothing and wait for him to improve on his own. (Avoidance)
e. Mention to him that you've noticed a drop in performance and ask him to pull
right. (Suppression)
8.4.2 Case Two:
You've noticed that two of your subordinates, Johnny and Paul, are always
arguing about the best way to do one of their tasks. This has caused a slowdown
in production and disrupts the work of others. To sort this situation out you
would:
a. Sit down with Johnny and Paul and ask them to select the best ideas of both.
(Compromise)
b. Decide who is right and tell the other one to stop arguing and go along with
it. (Power)
c. Let them sort out their own problems. (Avoidance)
d. Ask each one individually what the problem is and let them openly discuss
their differences together.
(Integration)
e. Tell them that they are both good workers and ask them to co-operate.
(Suppression)
8.4.3 Case Three:
The supervisor artisan of a section next to yours, Piet de Koker, lets his
people take a longer tea break than allowed. You are strict about tea breaks and
your workers have expressed some resentment about this. At times you lend Piet
one of your workers to help him out. You would:
a. Tell your employees that what Piet does is none of their business.
(Avoidance)
b. Tell Piet that you will continue helping him out if he sticks to the official
tea break times.
(Compromise)
c. Talk to Piet, tell him about the problem and ask him for co-operation.
(Integration)
d. Tell your employees that the work in Piet's section is not as important as
theirs, so he can afford to give his people more time. (Suppression)
e. Go to Piet's boss and ask him to make Piet stick to the official time.
(Power)
8.4.4 Case Four:
Mary was moved into your section six months ago from another department where
her performance had been satisfactory. You have since then had to give her three
oral warnings for different problems. One of your other employees came to you
yesterday to complain about mistakes that Mary had made that meant extra work
for her colleague. Today Mary came in an hour late. You would:
a. Say nothing now but see if she improves. (Avoidance)
b. Tell her that if she comes to work on time for the next month and does not
cause more problems, you will take no action. (Compromise)
c. Call her in, discuss the seriousness of her behaviour and ask her what the
two of you can do to solve the problems. (Integration)
d. Tell her that she must improve her performance for the sake of good relations
with her colleagues.
(Suppression)
e. Recommend to your boss that she be fired. (Power)
In cases three and four you still have the chance to revert back to power later
on.
Knowledge of the tactics used in different strategies can be helpful. One can become more effective in identifying the strategy used by the other party and in selection of the appropriate strategy for oneself.
|
Tactics used in: |
|
|
Collaborating |
Domineering |
|
1. Pursue the common goal 2. Define the mutual problems with the other party 3. Equalize power 4. Openness and honesty 5. Avoid surprises 6. Use 3rd parties for their problem-solving skills |
1. Pursue your own goal 2. Define the other party as the problem 3. Increase your power 4. Secrecy and deception 5. Use the element of surprise 6. Use 3rd parties to form power coalitions |
10.1 Preparation:
Prof. W.D. Pienaar identifies the following planning and
preparatory steps:
1. Determine objectives
2. Analysis of the situation
3. Identification of issues
4. Analysis of information on negotiators
5. Legal implications
6. Financial preparation (nett outcome)
7. Tactics
8. Scheduling of progress review sessions
10.2 Phases:
According to Prof. W.D. Pienaar the following phases can be used
as a dynamic agenda:
1. Opening (making people comfortable)
2. Establishment of common ground (objectives, roles, meeting rules and agenda)
3. Definition of the problem
4. Oppositional trade-offs
5. Cooperative trade-offs
6. Formulation of points of agreement
7. Determination of implementation actions
8. Closure
1. Give a definition of conflict. [6]
2. What are the four reasons for difference of opinions? [4]
3. What are the five basic methods (negotiating techniques) for handling
conflict? [5]
4. List an advantage for each of the conflict-handling methods. [10]
5. List a disadvantage for each of the conflict-handling methods. [10]
6. Draw diagrammatically the grid that illustrates natural
dominant response behaviours in conflict situations. [10]
7. Explain the difference in degree of assertiveness and degree of
cooperativeness in conflict situations. [4]
8. Illustrate diagrammatically how one can go about selecting the appropriate
strategy for conflict handling, by first analysing stakes and flexibility. [13]
9. What are the three factors to be analysed fully before choosing the
appropriate conflict-handling strategy? [3]
10. Below are listed twelve tactics used in strategies for conflict-handling.
Choose the six that are associated with collaborating, by writing down the
numbers. Then write down the numbers that are associated with domineering:
a) Pursue own goal.
b) Define other party as problem.
c) Pursue common goal.
d) Increase your power.
e) Define mutual problems with the other party.
f) Equalise power.
g) Secrecy and deception.
h) Openness and honesty.
i) Avoid surprises.
j) Use the element of surprise.
k) Use third parties to form power coalitions.
l) Use third parties for their problem-solving
skills. [12]
11. Give a synonym for each of the strategies listed below:
a) Avoiding.
b) Accommodating.
c) Compromising.
d) Domineering.
e) Collaborating. [5]
Total [82]
12.1 Utilise the next conflict opportunity that comes your way.
Make use of the knowledge contained in this module. Apply it to a conflict
situation between yourself and another party or to help in resolving conflict
between two other parties.
12.2 Write a report about the conflict covering the following: description of
the conflict situation, clarification of elements, clarifications of stakes,
flexibility and outcome relationship, selection of strategies and results of
your efforts. (+- 4 pages)
13.1 Conflict Management, by Prof. D. de Villiers, 1992, Juta &
Co. Ltd.
13.2 Negotiation, Theories, Strategies & Skills, by W.D. Pienaar and H.I.J.
Spoelstra, 1992, Juta & Co. Ltd.
13.3 Lectures and
lecture notes by by James Laubscher, 1992.
About the Author:
Pierre
du Plessis (MBL, 1982, UNISA) is a business consultant, co-owner of Leaders
Circle, author of several e-books and training manuals, previous Corporate
Logistics and Procurement Manager, ex-army infantry soldier as
Officer in Charge of
Battalion Operations and nowadays business owner of several successful offline
business operations. He is also co-founder of
Career Builders Club. This
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A central aspect of cooperative problem solving is the avoidance, detection, and resolution of conflicts among group members. Therefore, conflict management is of great theoretical and practical interest in the development of models of multi-agent problem solving. Work on conflict management has occurred in a variety of settings including multi-agent planning and design, artificial intelligence and law, distributed artificial intelligence, group decision support systems, computer-supported cooperative work, software engineering, sociology, organizational science, and international relations. 1
Conflict: Practices in Management, Settlement, and Resolution will be of interest to those who seek to understand which approach to conflict management is best suited to which kind of conflict. This work is divided into twenty-two chapters in five parts, With an introduction and an appendix. The appendix presents a guide to facilitated conflict resolution procedures. In the Introduction the authors introduce the terms and categories which will be used throughout the text. They sketch the types of conflicts which will be addressed, briefly describe failed mechanisms for managing such conflicts, and describe the consequences of those failures. 2
The benefits of conflict management may depend on the type of project and the type of conflict. Conflicts can either be pre-existing (and even be a primary cause of ICZM problems) or result from planned interventions and/or development projects in the coastal zone. Construction of a major international seaport will probably always displace other users and conflict management may not be able to mitigate those conflicts significantly. On the other hand, the favourable outcome of multiple-use coastal zone development projects, where objectives of fisheries, tourism and environmental protection are expected to be realised in conjunction may depend on effective conflict management. 3
Therefore, if the projection and the reality of the network society are even slightly in the direction many of the most respected authors in political science, sociology and international relations predict, then the theory and practice of conflict management and diplomacy needs to be re-evaluated and updated. Newer case study research (Greenberg, Barton and McGuiness 2000) and the writings on Digital Diplomacy (Bollier 2003, Catto 2002) have begun to recognize this, this paper attempts to systematically analyze and conceptualize the issues. 4
Conflicts are not necessarily negative. The problem rather lies in how conflicts are managed. Thus, the goal of conflict management is not to avoid conflict, but to focus on the skills that can help people express their differences and solve their problems. Conflicts can either be real conflicts or conflicts that arise in case of miscommunication (e.g. It is important to know the cause of a conflict so that an appropriate conflict management technique can be used. 5
The next phase of the project also aims to meet other institutional and capacity development needs in conflict management for countries that participated in the pilot workshops as well as additional countries interested in enhancing their knowledge-base and skills in conflict management. First, within the realm of training, is to ensure that the material is locally adapted and self-sustaining by collaborating with local institutions to deliver the training material, as needed, in indigenous languages and for different target audiences. 6
The second project aim is to develop and strengthen those governance institutions and mechanisms directly involved in managing conflicts. This includes advisory services coupled with introductory workshops in response to requests for policy advice and guidance on conflict management skills development and practice. In addition to overall institutional assessment and development, it may include the establishment and staffing of mediation centers, ADR and court-annexed mediation programmes; strengthening the conflict resolution capacities of ombudsman and human rights institutions; implementing decentralization and diversity management policies in ethnically diverse communities; working with development ministries and agencies on cross-conflict initiatives that jointly address development and coexistence-building needs; and other modalities for instituting dialogue and consensus-building processes to address divisive issues. 7
The Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management was established by the Legislature in 1989 to provide dispute resolution programs and services to schools, courts and communities and to state and local government. The agency is governed by twelve members appointed by the Governor, the Chief Justice, the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate. Given its broad mandate and representation, the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management is at the forefront of a national movement to promote the use of dispute resolution education and practice. For more information concerning the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution, please reference its Web site, www.disputeresolution.ohio.gov/. 8
the division does that very, very well with an award winning research incubator, meetings, faculty pairings, etc., but it would be nice to see Conflict Management find a home inside a recognized degree path (such as International Management) and have universities that are recognized for the programs they offer in Conflict Management (compared to Wharton for finance, as an example). Most of these issues should resolve as the area matures and evolves, but they are issues that are important. 9
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counselling may prove to be a helpful antidote. Although few organizations can afford the luxury of having professional counsellors on the staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this function. Nondirective counselling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being a good listener ? 10
Conflict management is the practice of identifying and handling conflict in a sensible, equitable, and efficient manner. While conflict is inevitable in the workplace, the way conflict is managed can distinguish good workplaces from great workplaces. Participants will learn to analyze conflict to understand the issues and emotions involved. Then, they will learn to resolve conflict using a proven 4-step method. This course allows participants to explore their personal conflict management style and develop skills to manage conflict more effectively. 11
The conflict management tradition which prevailed until recently was a blend of "winning" and "common-law" approaches, with the former dominating. It was strengthened by the lessons of Munich 1938, and thereafter tended to emphasize the necessity of winning the conflict when it had a moral dimension. This contributed to the formation of a totally new academic theory of managing conflicts - "conflict resolution." 12
First developed by figures like Rapoport, Boulding, Singer, and others at Ann Arbor, Michigan, where the Center for Conflict Resolution was established, this approach has since acquired a large constituency both in the USA and abroad. Special attention has been given to this approach at the United Nations and other international bodies whose principles of management are based on consensus. 13
The faculty is proud of the role of chartered surveyors in conflict management and dispute resolution, indeed the expertise of surveyors in conflict management is instrumental in ensuring that relatively few formal disputes occur. When disputes are unavoidable, the dispute management and dispute resolution skills of surveyors ensure that disruption and expense are minimised. Other faculties have evolved chartered status to reflect the skills of faculty members; the faculty has considered this issue and debate continues. 14
Importantly, the foundation for the whole theory was a cost-benefit analysis of conflict in conditions of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), which provided solid proof of the futility of using force as an ultimate ratio. The further evolution of the conflict resolution approach has brought a focus on conflict prevention and conflict avoidance as another means to settle conflicts in the early stages of their formation. Conceptually, these were off-shoots of the "mother theory," but they have had a major impact on attitudes towards conflict, strengthening the belief that it is possible to solve conflicts without letting them grow into wars. 15
Some people are confused by the term "Certificate". A certificate is usually proof of completion of some type of professional development and can have different meanings to various organizations and/or people. A certificate of participation is issued for each workshop completed. And a final Certificate is issued upon completion of the requirements. 16
Parties in intractable conflict lack the inherent trust needed for democracy to prosper. For parties who were only recently at war, embracing democracy as a post-war system of conflict management is inherently risky because there is usually a deep-seated lack of trust, a pervasive fear of uncertainty. Why should parties in conflict accept the likely uncertainties of elections in a post-war democracy -- where there will be winners and losers at the polls? Why lose at the ballot box what was not lost on the battlefield? 17
All applications will be reviewed by representatives of the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management. The Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management retains final authority concerning all contracts awarded through the Public Disputes Program. 18
This management style is characterized by the individual(s) withdrawing (Sashkin, 1995), giving up personal goals and relationships, staying away from issues involving conflict (McMahon, 1994), changing the subject, and joking (Hocker & Wilmot, 1991). McMahon refers to this style as the ?urtle? A study by Drake, Zammuto, and Parasuaman (1982) supports the belief that workers engaged in conflict with a superior most likely to respond in an avoidance or obliging behavior (Rahim, 1989). Certain cultures may differ in their valuing of avoidance as well (Hocker & Wilmot, 1991). 19
The perils of introducing democracy after civil war are many and serious. Trust is weak, the issues are emotionally strong, the parties are faction-ridden and incoherent, and much is required of outside parties to guarantee a settlement. Can democracy work in deeply divided societies? The evidence is mixed. The country has managed to sustain procedural democracy while making slow, and seemingly steady, progress toward democratic consolidation. On the other hand, the problems experienced by Cambodia (which suffered setbacks to democracy after a period of failed power sharing), or Bosnia (which has struggled with overcoming ethnic tensions) temper optimism about democracy as an effective post-war conflict management system. 20
References
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