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1. Motivation defined
2. Motivational factors
3. Interpersonal response traits
4. Typical reactions to change
5. Managing change
6. How to influence people
7. Effective groups
8. Lessons from possibility thinking
9. Summary
10. Self-test questions
11. Task assignment
12 Bibliography
1.1 GENERAL:
Motivation is the energetic behaviour by individuals to achieve goals and
satisfy personal desires.
True motivation stems from within the individual who wants to satisfy his/her
needs, wants and desires.
In business, the individual can satisfy some of his needs by achieving
management productivity goals.
The motivational level of a person is the product of internal motivational
factors (based on needs and self-worth perceptions), as well as external
motivational factors in his surroundings.
So, to say that you cannot motivate another person, but that only he/she can
motivate himself/herself, is just not true. You can directly uplift self-worth
and influence the external factors that are conducive to increase of self-worth.
1.2 PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE:
The purpose of this module is to supply you with knowledge, so that you can:
- influence and motivate people to higher levels of performance; - lead
subordinates to cope with change.
2.1 INTERNAL HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:
A comparison between the needs theories of Maslow and Herzberg can be illustrated as follows:
|
Maslow |
Herzberg |
|||
| Physiological |
Hunger Thirst |
Physical | Hygiene | Dissatisfiers |
| Safety |
Security Housing |
|||
| Love | Affection | |||
| Identification | Egoistic | Motivation | Satisfiers | |
| Esteem |
Prestige Success Self-respect |
|||
| Self-actualisation | Self-fulfilment | |||
A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour.
The higher order egoistic needs will become more important to the individual
once the lower order physiological and safety needs have been satisfied.
The absence of hygiene factors will cause dissatisfaction, but their presence
will not satisfy. The presence of motivational factors will however, lead to
satisfaction of egoistic needs.
To motivate, one must then concentrate on the satisfiers.
2.2 EXTERNAL FACTORS:
Some of the external factors that have an influence on the satisfiers in the
work environment, are as follows:
Organisational climate
Leadership styles (democratic, autocratic)
Supervision (close, loose)
Formal structure (hierarchy, rules, regulations, policies, communication)
Supervisor attitudes
Relationships with superiors
Team spirit and effectiveness
Development and training
Degree of participation in decision-making
Degree of challenge in goal-setting
Praise and recognition methods (formal and informal)
Degree of delegation (independence, initiative allowed)
Body language
Application of constructive motivation
3.1 PRIMARY TRAITS:
3.1.1. Role fulfilment - degree of dominance or self- confidence, initiative.
3.1.2 Attitude towards others - degree of sympathy or sensitivity, sociability.
3.1.3 Expressive style - degree of competitiveness, aggressiveness,
exhibitionism.
3.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY TRAITS:
The characteristics of a primary trait can differ from person to person. Some
characteristics are the following:
Stability
Pervasiveness
Consistency
3.3 WHEN NEEDS ARE FULFILLED:
3.3.1. A person moves on to higher needs;
3.3.2 Fulfilment of higher needs have lasting effects on self-esteem and
self-confidence.
3.4 WHEN NEEDS ARE FULFILLED TOO EASILY:
The individual can forego learning experiences that develop him which can lead
to overestimation of his abilities. He may become over-confident with a too high
aspiration level.
3.5 FRUSTRATION:
Obstacle sources that can block goal achievement are the physical environment,
biological limitations (motor and mental incapacities), psychological mix
(conflicting needs) and social environment (norms).
Defensive reactions due to frustration, are as follows:
Aggression - attack on barrier or person
Regression - falling back on less mature behaviour
Withdrawal - removal from obstacle and escape in daydreaming, work, sleep etc.
Repression - inhibitive action due to subconscious habits and values
Reaction formation - conscious opposite reaction to counter a deep-seated
subconscious opposing value
Rationalisation - justification of beliefs by inventive reasoning
Projection - ascribing to others one's own faults
Autism - unrealistic, unchecked emotional brooding about others
Identification - modelling oneself after another individual or group
3.6 FORMATION OF ATTITUDES:
Perceived values and beliefs form the basis for the formation of attitudes. An
attitude can be either towards or against something; also called positive or
negative attitude. It can further differ in intensity from one person to
another, where their attitudes have the same directional tendency.
New information that alters values and beliefs, the type of motivation that is
applied, body language and the degree of sincere interest exhibited in human
beings, can change attitudes.
3.7 ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR (DOUGLAS McGREGOR):
3.7.1 THEORY X: THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF DIRECTION AND CONTROL
3.7.1.1 The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid
it if he can.
3.7.1.2 Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with
punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of
organisational objectives.
3.7.1.3 The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all.
3.7.2 THEORY Y: THE INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANISATIONAL GOALS
3.7.2.1 The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as
play or rest.
3.7.2.2 External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for
bringing about effort towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise
self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is
committed.
3.7.2.3 Commitment to objectives depends on the rewards associated with their
achievement.
3.7.2.4 The average human being learns under proper conditions, not only to
accept but to seek responsibility.
3.7.2.5 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is widely,
not narrowly, distributed in the population.
3.7.2.6 Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised.
Theory Y is far more consistent with modern knowledge in the social sciences.
Typical human reactions to change can be illustrated by means of the following diagram, which resembles the steps of a ladder or a staircase: It starts with step 1 of utter surprise and goes up all the way through the steps up to step 10, where achievement is possible and people start to say "let's do it". The stages of gradual acceptance are:
Surprise
Rejection
Cynicism
Grudging acceptance
Rejection once again
Acceptance
Commitment
Haste
Control
Achievement
5.1 ROLE OF THE SUPERVISOR/MANAGER:
Change causes instability, uncertainty, insecurity and anxiety in people.
The role of the manager is therefore to provide some security, stability and
understanding of the effects of change. The manager must make the painful
process more bearable and increase the motivational level of those who must
carry out the changes.
5.2 COPING WITH CHANGE:
|
Problem |
Solution |
| Feeling of loss of control if changes are introduced by others | Assure participation in the planning and implementation of change |
| Surprise and uncertainty | Announce plans before implementation and allow time for adjusting and for carrying out in sequence |
| New and different ways from habitual past | Change only the necessary and emphasise the benefits. Provide training in new methods. |
| Perceiving change to mean the previous situation was wrong | Get the past in perspective and emphasise the reasons for change |
| There may be losers | Provide certainty as soon as possible |
| People seek direction and support | Provide positive leadership |
5.3 GUIDELINES FOR
COPING WITH CHANGE:
5.3.1 Create opportunities for participation in the planning of the change;
5.3.2 visualize a clear picture about the future state and communicate this
frequently to all involved;
5.3.3 share as much information as possible about your plans;
5.3.4 plan small steps with minimal changes;
5.3.5 minimize surprises by giving advance warning;
5.3.6 allow people time to get used to new ideas;
5.3.7 give recognition and praise for good ideas and performance;
5.3.8 publicise improvements;
5.3.9 show empathy but remain committed to the standards and goals;
5.3.10 people must see where they fit into the bigger picture;
5.3.11 encourage teamwork;
5.3.12 convey and cultivate the feeling that the change will provide people with
a safe haven;
5.3.13 be supportive; and
5.3.14 provide clear direction
The following statements
are a few extracts from the book "How to win friends and influence people," by
Dale Carnegie, which was written in the first half of this century:
Even in technical areas like engineering, the contribution towards success of a
person is only 15% by his technical knowledge and skills, but 85% by his ability
in human engineering.
To criticise someone is to belittle and hurt him.
The strongest and most common craving in all humans is the desire to be
important and distinguished. Every person is thirsty for appreciation. A man's
name is to him the sweetest sound on earth.
Be sincere with your appreciation and lavish in your praise. Stop to ponder on
your own importance, abilities and needs and try to see the good qualities in
the other person.
If you want to influence other people, you have to forget your own needs, as
only you are interested in them. Rather concentrate on what others want, talk
about that and show them how to get it.
The individual who is not interested in his fellow human beings has the biggest
problems in life and inflicts the most sorrow on others.
Give time, energy, unselfishness and consideration to prove benevolence.
You must enjoy meeting other people if you want them to enjoy meeting you.
Positive thinking causes creative power.
A smile costs nothing, but achieves much. It takes only a fleeting moment, but
can exist in memory forever. It brings happiness in the family, goodwill in
business and is the password of friends.
Like the dog wagging its tail with joy, body language has great expressive power
in conveying feelings and emotion.
It can be stated that
what is good for the individual is also good for the group, in terms of
motivational factors. So, instead of analysing the behaviour of groups, let us
rather look at the behavioural traits of effective groups as disclosed in the
book "The human side of enterprise," by D. McGregor:
7.1 Informal, relaxed atmosphere;
7.2 open participation in discussions;
7.3 clear-cut common goals that members are committed to;
7.4 members are open and sensitive to each other's ideas;
7.5 disagreements are logically clarified without domination;
7.6 decisions are reached by consensus and willingness to support them;
7.7 criticism is comfortably frank and open;
7.8 free expression of ideas and feelings;
7.9 clear action assignments;
7.10 no power struggle for leadership, as leadership shifts from task to task;
7.11 members are self-drivers;
7.12 good relations and friendship exist between members
Studies have revealed that group problem-solving is far superior to individual
problem-solving. The reasons are obvious, namely multiplication of knowledge,
intelligence and ideas.
As
they say, "None of us is as smart as all of us."
Group behaviour is more fully analysed in Team-building.
The principles of
improving self-confidence, are also applicable to other individuals and groups:
8.1 Help people to build self-image;
8.2 help them to become possibility thinkers;
8.3 be a Wizard and change their self-image beliefs which are based on
half-truths;
8.4 teach them how to apply constructive image building (positive self-talk,
positive pictures, positive emotion, cognitive dissonance and the subconscious
that drives you to act out the new belief);
8.5 use visualisation to help them see sooner and adapt more easily (paint them
a picture);
8.6 give opportunities for people to prove by real performance that they are
worthy of higher self-image;
8.7 apply constructive motivation towards others;
8.8 teach them the life-giving value of continuous goal-setting;
8.9 teach them the simulation and affirmation techniques;
8.10 teach them that changes can be stimulating, adventurous and pleasurable and
in any case part of everyday life. We might just learn how to handle them better
through visualisation and goal- setting.
If you apply the
principles of common decency to enhance human dignity and combine it with the
power of the imagination, you not only have the gift to influence and motivate
people, but also the means to induce growth of self-esteem in others.
Understanding your own behaviour first, will enable you to better understand and
interpret the behaviour of others. Then you will also be able to treat them
better through your own interpersonal relationship to encourage co-operation and
higher performance.
People thrive on attention. People blossom when their opinions are sought.
People develop into go-getters if they have been party to decisions and goal
setting. People have an innate desire to communicate, to be communicated with
and to be listened to.
1. Define your
understanding of motivation. [5]
2. There are two sources of motivational factors. Name them. [2]
3. You can motivate another person in two ways where you have an influence.
Describe them. [4]
4. Maslow identified five groupings in his hierarchy of needs. List the five.
[5]
5. On which two groupings (satisfiers) in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, must
motivational effort be concentrated? [2]
6. Thirteen external factors that have an influence on the satisfiers are listed
in the module. Name eight. [8]
7. There are three primary, individual interpersonal response traits. What are
they? [3]
8. There are nine defensive reactions to frustration. List eight. [8]
9. Formation of attitudes can basically take on two directional tendencies. List
the two. [2]
10. Typical reactions to change can be illustrated by ten stepping stones. List
the ten. [10]
11. Describe your understanding of McGregor's theory X. [6]
12. Describe your understanding of McGregor's theory Y. [12]
13. Describe the role of the supervisor/manager during periods of change. [3]
14. During periods of change, problems can arise as listed below. Describe the
behaviour that is necessary to cope with the problem.
a) Feeling of loss of control.
b) Surprise and uncertainty.
c) New and different ways.
d) The previous situation was wrong.
e) There may be losers.
f) People seek direction and support. [12]
15. There are fourteen guide-lines for coping with change. Describe seven. [14]
16. There are twelve behavioural traits of effective groups. Describe six. [12]
17. There are ten lessons from module seven listed. Describe five. [10]
Total [118]
11.1 Use your knowledge
about human behaviour and consciously change your own behaviour towards others
to motivate them and build their self-esteem. First plan the aspects where
change in own behaviour is necessary to have a balanced growth in all spheres of
your own life. Write them down as goals. Then write out an affirmation for each
as explained in module 7 and start with the imprinting process.
11.2 Now actively live up to your affirmations in real life and keep it up for
two weeks.
11.3 Write up a report about your experiences (behavioural aspects you tried to
improve, how others reacted, successes, failures and your intentional treatment
of others in future). (+- 2 pages)
11.1 Individual in
Society, by D. Krech, R.S. Crutchfield and E.L. Ballachey, 1962, McGRAW-HILL.
11.2 People and Productivity, by R.A. Sutermiester, 1963, McGRAW-HILL.
11.3 The Investment in Excellence Programme - by Eric Felton Associates (Pty.)Ltd.
, 1991.
11.4 Team Building, by W.G. Dyer, 1977, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
11.5 Lectures and lecture notes by by James Laubscher, 1991
About the Author:
Pierre
du Plessis (MBL, 1982, UNISA) is a business consultant, co-owner of Leaders
Circle, author of several e-books and training manuals, previous Corporate
Logistics and Procurement Manager, ex-army infantry soldier as
Officer in Charge of
Battalion Operations and nowadays business owner of several successful offline
business operations. He is also co-founder of
Career Builders Club.
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This new and updated edition of the highly successful MBA and undergraduate text on change management uses current examples with a strategic focus to guide students through the issues and processes associated with managing change. The new edition: - provides a framework for applying different models to different scenarios; - offers proactive approaches to change that relate to business performance; - gives practical, step-by-step means of handling change; - illustrates with up-to-date real-life case studies. Students using Change Management will gain a greater understanding that effective solutions to change problems need to combine technological, organizational and people-oriented strategies. In this sense the book adopts a process-based approach to management. It will also encourage students to familiarize themselves with the different contingencies that affect management and the most effective measures for dealing with them. 1
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While the definition of change management is simply a process for managing the people-side of change, the practice is complex. Managing transition in individuals, teams or organizations is as complex as those individuals, teams and organizations. 4
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You should even apply these principles to very tough change like making people redundant, closures and integrating merged or acquired organizations. Bad news needs even more careful management than routine change. Hiding behind memos and middle managers will make matters worse. Consulting with people, and helping them to understand does not weaken your position - it strengthens it. Leaders who fail to consult and involve their people in managing bad news are perceived as weak and lacking in integrity. Treat people with humanity and respect and they will reciprocate. 13
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The Prosci process - After eight years of research with over 1000 organizations, Prosci released its Change Management Process. Built into the process are scalable and flexible components for customizing your activities to the specific organizational change you are implementing. The process is three steps: preparing for change, managing change, reinforcing change. 15
The process of change has been characterized as having three basic stages: unfreezing, changing, and re-freezing. This view draws heavily on Kurt Lewin's adoption of the systems concept of homeostasis or dynamic stability. 16
There are different overall types of organizational change, including planned versus unplanned, organization-wide versus change primarily to one part of the organization, incremental (slow, gradual change) versus transformational (radical, fundamental), etc Knowing which types of change you are doing helps all participants to retain scope and perspective during the many complexities and frequent frustrations during change. Read the following article to understand more about each type of change. 17
Many organizations learned the hard way through failed projects. They learned that change management is not something addressed after the fact. Change management must start at the beginning of the project and be integrated into all facets. Both perspectives of change management must be addressed: the managers and the employees. 18
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So what is change management? Change management is the effective management of a business change such that executive leaders, managers and front line employees work in concert to successfully implement the needed process, technology or organizational changes. 20
References
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